Post by Pathfinder on Nov 13, 2022 11:11:34 GMT
The Utopian Vision in Medieval Japan: An Examination of the
Ninno¯ kyo¯ [Su¯tra of Benevolent Kings]
Eisai’s argument in the Ko¯zen gokokuron was predicated on widely held assumptions in medieval Japan regarding the role of Buddhism as an essential
component of a civilized society. In Japan such notions date from the time of
Sho¯toku Taishi (574–622), who formally introduced Buddhism as a leading
component in the affairs of the country.13 At this time the Buddhist religion,
hitherto dominated by certain clans, was promoted as a unifying force for the
Japanese state, newly conceived under Sho¯toku’s inspiration.
The importance of Buddhism for affairs of state in Japan was reaffirmed
in the Nara (710–794) and Heian periods (794–1185), when three Buddhist
scriptures provided the cornerstones of state Buddhist ideology in Japan: the
Myo¯ho¯ renge kyo¯ (Su¯tra of the Lotus Blossom of the Fine Dharma, better known
simply as the Hokke kyo¯, the Lotus Su¯tra),14 the Konko¯myo¯ kyo¯ (Su¯tra of the
Golden Light),15 and the Ninno¯ gokoku hannya kyo¯ (the Prajn˜a¯pa¯ramita¯ Su¯tra
Explaining how Benevolent Kings Protect Their Countries, or simply, the Ninno¯
kyo¯).16 These three scriptures became collectively known in Japan as the “three
su¯tras for the protection of the country” (chingo kokka no sambukyo¯).17 Eisai’s
treatise calling on the rulers of Japan to promote Zen for the protection of the
country shared the widely accepted ideological background that these scriptures provided.
Among the three scriptures for the protection of the country just mentioned, the Ninno¯ kyo¯ assumed the most importance for Eisai.18 This importance is based on Eisai’s admission in the Preface to the Ko¯zen gokokuron that
his reason for titling his work The Promotion of Zen for the Protection of the
Country is that it is consistent with the ideas originally taught by the Dharma
King (ho¯-o¯), the Buddha, to the Benevolent Kings (ninno¯).19 It is also confirmed
by the frequency and prominence with which the Ninno¯ kyo¯ is cited by Eisai
in the Ko¯zen gokokuron.
20 A review of the Ninno¯ kyo¯ reveals the ideological
zen buddhism as the ideology of the japanese state 69
assumptions of Eisai’s Zen reform program in the Ko¯zen gokokuron, based in
the prajn˜a¯ (wisdom) tradition of Mahaya¯na Buddhism.
Most of the topics addressed in the Ninno¯ kyo¯ are well known to anyone
familiar with Mahaya¯na Buddhism, especially to the Prajn˜a¯-pa¯ramita¯ (J. hannya; perfection of wisdom) literature. Among them are emptiness, the Tatha¯-
gata, the bodhisattva path, the two levels of truths, miraculous events, and so
on. The appearance of the benevolent kings (ninno¯) distinguishes the contents
of the Ninno¯ kyo¯, particularly their concern for establishing secular authority
based on Buddhist principles. The message contained in chapter 5, “Protecting
One’s Country” (gokoku), together with that of concluding chapters 7, “Receiving and Upholding [the Ninno¯ kyo¯],” and 8, “[The Buddha] Entrusts [the Ninno¯
kyo¯ and the Three Treasures: the Buddha, Dharma, and san˙ gha] to the [Benevolent] Kings,” where this concern is most explicitly revealed, draws the content
of the Ninno¯ kyo¯ closely to the Ko¯zen gokokuron.
21
In terms of the message that the Ninno¯ kyo¯ wishes to convey, however, the
first four chapters are more than a prelude. They affirm the primary importance that the Buddha Dharma, namely prajn˜a¯-teaching and those practitioners
who are devoted to it, have for the welfare of the state. The first priority of the
state, following this logic, is to seek not its own preservation but the preservation of Buddhism. Later the kings learn that the preservation of Buddhism
is inextricably bound to the preservation of their own country. This was a
powerful message for Buddhist monarchs looking to Mahaya¯na teaching as a
basis and justification for their own rule: spiritual aims and secular interests
coincide in support for Buddhism.
In chapter 5 the terms for protecting countries are specified in terms of
support for the teachings contained in the Ninno¯ kyo¯ (i.e., prajn˜a¯-teaching). The
Buddha advises that whenever the destruction of a country is imminent, regardless of the cause, the king should sponsor a ritual recitation of the Ninno¯
kyo¯. In addition, the Buddha recommends that the kings commission daily
recitations of the Ninno¯ kyo¯, as a matter of course, to invoke the assistance of
native deities and spirits in protecting their countries. Ninno¯ kyo¯ recitation is
also said to be useful for obtaining a number of practical benefits, both material
and spiritual, including protection against countless afflictions that plague one
during the course of human existence. In short, Ninno¯ kyo¯ recitation is characterized as having unquestionable salutary effects over numerous unseen
forces that determine human destiny, particularly the destiny of a ruler and his
kingdom. The chapter spells out in concrete terms the methods to be employed
by kings to protect their countries, win material and spiritual benefits, and
alleviate personal afflictions. It assures kings of the actual benefits to be obtained if they follow ritual procedures focusing on the recitation of the Ninno¯
kyo¯, and it provides a contrast between the altruistic virtue of the righteous
Buddhist monarch and the petty greed of the power-hungry ruler.
70 zen classics
The end of chapter 5 is taken up with two exemplary tales that illustrate
the chapter’s message. The first involves S´akra, who by recourse to the methods
just described, was able to repel invading armies seeking his destruction and
the destruction of his kingdom. The second relates how the crown prince of a
country called Devala conspires to win succession to the throne by offering the
heads of a thousand kings in sacrifice to the local god These means were
suggested to the crown prince by a non-Buddhist priest, presumably one dedicated to the local god in question. The prince succeeds in capturing 999 kings
and transports them to the shrine of the local god, where they are to be sacrificed. One king shy of his goal, the prince encounters his last prospective
victim, a king called Universal Light.
Prior to transporting Universal Light before the local god to be sacrificed,
the prince grants the king’s last request, which is to supply food and drink to
Buddhist monks and pay his final respects to the three Buddhist treasures, the
Buddha, Dharma, and San˙ gha. When the monks recite the Ninno¯ kyo¯ on the
king’s behalf, Universal Light is able to extricate himself from harm. Upon his
arrival in Devala, Universal Light instructs the other 999 kings how to save
themselves through recitation of the verses from the Ninno¯ kyo¯, just as it was
originally uttered by the monks he assembled. The recitation ultimately succeeds in converting the crown prince himself, who confesses his wrong and
sends all of the assembled kings back to their homes, instructing them to have
Buddhist priests in their kingdoms recite verses from the Ninno¯ kyo¯.
The point of the story is that without the benefit of Buddhist virtue, the
non-Buddhist ruler is consumed by the drive for power. This drive is marked
by extreme insensitivity and barbarity. Moreover, in this story, local religious
authority sanctioned this barbarity. In opposition, Buddhism is presented as a
universal religion of compassion, which, through the teaching of the Ninno¯
kyo¯, offers rulers a vision of peaceful co-existence predicated on a higher law.
In short, the Ninno¯ kyo¯ promotes the cause of Buddhist right over sheer force
or might.
The concluding chapters of the Ninno¯ kyo¯ describe further the responsibilities incumbent upon righteous monarchs for implementing the cause of
Buddhist virtue in their kingdoms. Chapter 7, “Receiving and Upholding (the
Ninno¯ kyo¯),” reinforces the message presented in chapter 5 and supplements
the methods suggested to kings for protecting their countries. The Ninno¯ kyo¯
is described here as “the spiritual source of the mind of buddhas, bodhisattvas,
and all sentient beings” and “the father and mother of all kings.” It is also
referred to as a divine charm, the mirror of heaven and earth, a treasure for
driving away demons, for obtaining one’s desires, and for protecting a country,22 descriptions that highlight the Ninno¯ kyo¯’s utility for both religious and
political matters.
A principal feature of the Ninno¯ kyo¯ is the responsibility it places on kings
for managing Buddhism and ensuring its continued existence. In return for
zen buddhism as the ideology of the japanese state 71
the protection that the Ninno¯ kyo¯ offers them and their kingdoms, the kings
are responsible for perpetuating the Dharma here on earth. The Buddha tells
King Prasenajit, the chief interlocutor among the benevolent kings, that after
his (Buddha’s) death, when the extinction of the Dharma is imminent, the king
should uphold the Ninno¯ kyo¯ and extensively perform Buddhist ceremonies
based on it. The security of every king and the happiness of all the people are
said to depend completely on this. For this reason, the Buddha continues, the
Ninno¯ kyo¯ has been entrusted to the kings of various countries and not to the
Buddhist clergy or faithful. The preservation of the Buddha Dharma under such
circumstances is thus the primary responsibility of the king, not the san˙ gha.
23
Chapter 7 also describes in detail the misfortunes that recitation of the
Ninno¯ kyo¯ serves to combat. Topping the list are calamities resulting from
disruptions in the celestial and natural order.24 In East Asian countries influenced by the Confucian doctrine that terrestrial power depended on Heaven’s
mandate, disruptions in the normal patterns of the heavens were viewed as
ominous warnings to the ruler. These signs were potentially threatening to the
ruler’s prestige and position, giving him ample cause to consider them with
extreme gravity.25 To avoid calamities stemming from disruptions in the celestial and natural (including human) order, the Ninno¯ kyo¯ stipulates ritual recitation of its contents according to a prescribed format.26
The Ninno¯ kyo¯ closes with chapter 8, “[The Buddha] Entrusts [the Ninno¯
kyo¯ and the Three Treasures] to the [Benevolent] Kings,” and a warning reinforcing the responsibility incumbent upon kings for maintaining Buddhism.
In particular, it is stated that at such times when the Buddha, Dharma, and
San˙ gha, as well as the Buddhist faithful, are absent from the world, the Ninno¯
kyo¯ and the three treasures will be entrusted to kings.27 It is the responsibility
of the kings to initiate the path of wisdom (i.e., prajn˜a¯-teaching) by having
members of the Buddhist assembly recite and explain the Ninno¯ kyo¯ to sentient
beings. In other words, the kings are responsible for reconstituting Buddhist
teaching in the world; the Ninno¯ kyo¯, representative as it is of prajn˜a¯-teaching,
is to serve as the basis for this reconstitution.
There are important implications for the model of Buddhist kingship provided in the Ninno¯ kyo¯. Essentially, the power of the king described here is
unambiguous. Although the royal power may be misused in some cases when
it is united with the Dharma, and the Ninno¯ kyo¯ is used as a guide, it serves
as an indisputable force for good. It is the hallmark, one might say, of the
benevolent monarch implementing Buddhist righteousness in the world. The
message of the Ninno¯ kyo¯ is particularly appropriate when the decline of the
Law (mappo¯) is anticipated, as was the case in late Heian Japan. The Ninno¯ kyo¯
is the prescribed Buddhist antidote for such times.
The Ninno¯ kyo¯ played an extensive role in medieval Chinese and Japanese
Buddhism, influencing both state ideology and ritual practices. It constituted
an accepted feature of the East Asian Buddhist tradition and commanded a
72 zen classics
particularly wide following in medieval Japan. The Ko¯zen gokokuron was written
within this context. In the first place, the Ko¯zen gokokuron affirmed the Ninno¯
kyo¯’s vision for the role of Buddhism within the Japanese Buddhist state. It
questioned, however, the way that this role had hitherto been fulfilled, and it
proposed that certain reforms were necessary in order for the traditional hegemony of Buddhist ideology and secular authority to be properly conceived
and executed. The central feature of this reform was predicated on the assumption that Zen teaching represented the legacy of the Buddha’s enlightenment and the true teaching of the Buddha. As a result, only Zen teaching
could fulfill the ideological quotient of the true Buddhist state.
The model of Buddhist kingship provided in the Ninno¯ kyo¯ thus reflected
the long-held aspirations of the Japanese ruling elite and the Buddhist establishment, affirming the accepted model of how the relationship between the
secular establishment and the Buddhist clergy was envisioned. This model, in
turn, established the parameters for the reform proposals in the Ko¯zen gokokuron.
Ninno¯ kyo¯ Ideology and Zen Teaching in the Ko¯zen gokokuron
Ninno¯ kyo¯ [Su¯tra of Benevolent Kings]
Eisai’s argument in the Ko¯zen gokokuron was predicated on widely held assumptions in medieval Japan regarding the role of Buddhism as an essential
component of a civilized society. In Japan such notions date from the time of
Sho¯toku Taishi (574–622), who formally introduced Buddhism as a leading
component in the affairs of the country.13 At this time the Buddhist religion,
hitherto dominated by certain clans, was promoted as a unifying force for the
Japanese state, newly conceived under Sho¯toku’s inspiration.
The importance of Buddhism for affairs of state in Japan was reaffirmed
in the Nara (710–794) and Heian periods (794–1185), when three Buddhist
scriptures provided the cornerstones of state Buddhist ideology in Japan: the
Myo¯ho¯ renge kyo¯ (Su¯tra of the Lotus Blossom of the Fine Dharma, better known
simply as the Hokke kyo¯, the Lotus Su¯tra),14 the Konko¯myo¯ kyo¯ (Su¯tra of the
Golden Light),15 and the Ninno¯ gokoku hannya kyo¯ (the Prajn˜a¯pa¯ramita¯ Su¯tra
Explaining how Benevolent Kings Protect Their Countries, or simply, the Ninno¯
kyo¯).16 These three scriptures became collectively known in Japan as the “three
su¯tras for the protection of the country” (chingo kokka no sambukyo¯).17 Eisai’s
treatise calling on the rulers of Japan to promote Zen for the protection of the
country shared the widely accepted ideological background that these scriptures provided.
Among the three scriptures for the protection of the country just mentioned, the Ninno¯ kyo¯ assumed the most importance for Eisai.18 This importance is based on Eisai’s admission in the Preface to the Ko¯zen gokokuron that
his reason for titling his work The Promotion of Zen for the Protection of the
Country is that it is consistent with the ideas originally taught by the Dharma
King (ho¯-o¯), the Buddha, to the Benevolent Kings (ninno¯).19 It is also confirmed
by the frequency and prominence with which the Ninno¯ kyo¯ is cited by Eisai
in the Ko¯zen gokokuron.
20 A review of the Ninno¯ kyo¯ reveals the ideological
zen buddhism as the ideology of the japanese state 69
assumptions of Eisai’s Zen reform program in the Ko¯zen gokokuron, based in
the prajn˜a¯ (wisdom) tradition of Mahaya¯na Buddhism.
Most of the topics addressed in the Ninno¯ kyo¯ are well known to anyone
familiar with Mahaya¯na Buddhism, especially to the Prajn˜a¯-pa¯ramita¯ (J. hannya; perfection of wisdom) literature. Among them are emptiness, the Tatha¯-
gata, the bodhisattva path, the two levels of truths, miraculous events, and so
on. The appearance of the benevolent kings (ninno¯) distinguishes the contents
of the Ninno¯ kyo¯, particularly their concern for establishing secular authority
based on Buddhist principles. The message contained in chapter 5, “Protecting
One’s Country” (gokoku), together with that of concluding chapters 7, “Receiving and Upholding [the Ninno¯ kyo¯],” and 8, “[The Buddha] Entrusts [the Ninno¯
kyo¯ and the Three Treasures: the Buddha, Dharma, and san˙ gha] to the [Benevolent] Kings,” where this concern is most explicitly revealed, draws the content
of the Ninno¯ kyo¯ closely to the Ko¯zen gokokuron.
21
In terms of the message that the Ninno¯ kyo¯ wishes to convey, however, the
first four chapters are more than a prelude. They affirm the primary importance that the Buddha Dharma, namely prajn˜a¯-teaching and those practitioners
who are devoted to it, have for the welfare of the state. The first priority of the
state, following this logic, is to seek not its own preservation but the preservation of Buddhism. Later the kings learn that the preservation of Buddhism
is inextricably bound to the preservation of their own country. This was a
powerful message for Buddhist monarchs looking to Mahaya¯na teaching as a
basis and justification for their own rule: spiritual aims and secular interests
coincide in support for Buddhism.
In chapter 5 the terms for protecting countries are specified in terms of
support for the teachings contained in the Ninno¯ kyo¯ (i.e., prajn˜a¯-teaching). The
Buddha advises that whenever the destruction of a country is imminent, regardless of the cause, the king should sponsor a ritual recitation of the Ninno¯
kyo¯. In addition, the Buddha recommends that the kings commission daily
recitations of the Ninno¯ kyo¯, as a matter of course, to invoke the assistance of
native deities and spirits in protecting their countries. Ninno¯ kyo¯ recitation is
also said to be useful for obtaining a number of practical benefits, both material
and spiritual, including protection against countless afflictions that plague one
during the course of human existence. In short, Ninno¯ kyo¯ recitation is characterized as having unquestionable salutary effects over numerous unseen
forces that determine human destiny, particularly the destiny of a ruler and his
kingdom. The chapter spells out in concrete terms the methods to be employed
by kings to protect their countries, win material and spiritual benefits, and
alleviate personal afflictions. It assures kings of the actual benefits to be obtained if they follow ritual procedures focusing on the recitation of the Ninno¯
kyo¯, and it provides a contrast between the altruistic virtue of the righteous
Buddhist monarch and the petty greed of the power-hungry ruler.
70 zen classics
The end of chapter 5 is taken up with two exemplary tales that illustrate
the chapter’s message. The first involves S´akra, who by recourse to the methods
just described, was able to repel invading armies seeking his destruction and
the destruction of his kingdom. The second relates how the crown prince of a
country called Devala conspires to win succession to the throne by offering the
heads of a thousand kings in sacrifice to the local god These means were
suggested to the crown prince by a non-Buddhist priest, presumably one dedicated to the local god in question. The prince succeeds in capturing 999 kings
and transports them to the shrine of the local god, where they are to be sacrificed. One king shy of his goal, the prince encounters his last prospective
victim, a king called Universal Light.
Prior to transporting Universal Light before the local god to be sacrificed,
the prince grants the king’s last request, which is to supply food and drink to
Buddhist monks and pay his final respects to the three Buddhist treasures, the
Buddha, Dharma, and San˙ gha. When the monks recite the Ninno¯ kyo¯ on the
king’s behalf, Universal Light is able to extricate himself from harm. Upon his
arrival in Devala, Universal Light instructs the other 999 kings how to save
themselves through recitation of the verses from the Ninno¯ kyo¯, just as it was
originally uttered by the monks he assembled. The recitation ultimately succeeds in converting the crown prince himself, who confesses his wrong and
sends all of the assembled kings back to their homes, instructing them to have
Buddhist priests in their kingdoms recite verses from the Ninno¯ kyo¯.
The point of the story is that without the benefit of Buddhist virtue, the
non-Buddhist ruler is consumed by the drive for power. This drive is marked
by extreme insensitivity and barbarity. Moreover, in this story, local religious
authority sanctioned this barbarity. In opposition, Buddhism is presented as a
universal religion of compassion, which, through the teaching of the Ninno¯
kyo¯, offers rulers a vision of peaceful co-existence predicated on a higher law.
In short, the Ninno¯ kyo¯ promotes the cause of Buddhist right over sheer force
or might.
The concluding chapters of the Ninno¯ kyo¯ describe further the responsibilities incumbent upon righteous monarchs for implementing the cause of
Buddhist virtue in their kingdoms. Chapter 7, “Receiving and Upholding (the
Ninno¯ kyo¯),” reinforces the message presented in chapter 5 and supplements
the methods suggested to kings for protecting their countries. The Ninno¯ kyo¯
is described here as “the spiritual source of the mind of buddhas, bodhisattvas,
and all sentient beings” and “the father and mother of all kings.” It is also
referred to as a divine charm, the mirror of heaven and earth, a treasure for
driving away demons, for obtaining one’s desires, and for protecting a country,22 descriptions that highlight the Ninno¯ kyo¯’s utility for both religious and
political matters.
A principal feature of the Ninno¯ kyo¯ is the responsibility it places on kings
for managing Buddhism and ensuring its continued existence. In return for
zen buddhism as the ideology of the japanese state 71
the protection that the Ninno¯ kyo¯ offers them and their kingdoms, the kings
are responsible for perpetuating the Dharma here on earth. The Buddha tells
King Prasenajit, the chief interlocutor among the benevolent kings, that after
his (Buddha’s) death, when the extinction of the Dharma is imminent, the king
should uphold the Ninno¯ kyo¯ and extensively perform Buddhist ceremonies
based on it. The security of every king and the happiness of all the people are
said to depend completely on this. For this reason, the Buddha continues, the
Ninno¯ kyo¯ has been entrusted to the kings of various countries and not to the
Buddhist clergy or faithful. The preservation of the Buddha Dharma under such
circumstances is thus the primary responsibility of the king, not the san˙ gha.
23
Chapter 7 also describes in detail the misfortunes that recitation of the
Ninno¯ kyo¯ serves to combat. Topping the list are calamities resulting from
disruptions in the celestial and natural order.24 In East Asian countries influenced by the Confucian doctrine that terrestrial power depended on Heaven’s
mandate, disruptions in the normal patterns of the heavens were viewed as
ominous warnings to the ruler. These signs were potentially threatening to the
ruler’s prestige and position, giving him ample cause to consider them with
extreme gravity.25 To avoid calamities stemming from disruptions in the celestial and natural (including human) order, the Ninno¯ kyo¯ stipulates ritual recitation of its contents according to a prescribed format.26
The Ninno¯ kyo¯ closes with chapter 8, “[The Buddha] Entrusts [the Ninno¯
kyo¯ and the Three Treasures] to the [Benevolent] Kings,” and a warning reinforcing the responsibility incumbent upon kings for maintaining Buddhism.
In particular, it is stated that at such times when the Buddha, Dharma, and
San˙ gha, as well as the Buddhist faithful, are absent from the world, the Ninno¯
kyo¯ and the three treasures will be entrusted to kings.27 It is the responsibility
of the kings to initiate the path of wisdom (i.e., prajn˜a¯-teaching) by having
members of the Buddhist assembly recite and explain the Ninno¯ kyo¯ to sentient
beings. In other words, the kings are responsible for reconstituting Buddhist
teaching in the world; the Ninno¯ kyo¯, representative as it is of prajn˜a¯-teaching,
is to serve as the basis for this reconstitution.
There are important implications for the model of Buddhist kingship provided in the Ninno¯ kyo¯. Essentially, the power of the king described here is
unambiguous. Although the royal power may be misused in some cases when
it is united with the Dharma, and the Ninno¯ kyo¯ is used as a guide, it serves
as an indisputable force for good. It is the hallmark, one might say, of the
benevolent monarch implementing Buddhist righteousness in the world. The
message of the Ninno¯ kyo¯ is particularly appropriate when the decline of the
Law (mappo¯) is anticipated, as was the case in late Heian Japan. The Ninno¯ kyo¯
is the prescribed Buddhist antidote for such times.
The Ninno¯ kyo¯ played an extensive role in medieval Chinese and Japanese
Buddhism, influencing both state ideology and ritual practices. It constituted
an accepted feature of the East Asian Buddhist tradition and commanded a
72 zen classics
particularly wide following in medieval Japan. The Ko¯zen gokokuron was written
within this context. In the first place, the Ko¯zen gokokuron affirmed the Ninno¯
kyo¯’s vision for the role of Buddhism within the Japanese Buddhist state. It
questioned, however, the way that this role had hitherto been fulfilled, and it
proposed that certain reforms were necessary in order for the traditional hegemony of Buddhist ideology and secular authority to be properly conceived
and executed. The central feature of this reform was predicated on the assumption that Zen teaching represented the legacy of the Buddha’s enlightenment and the true teaching of the Buddha. As a result, only Zen teaching
could fulfill the ideological quotient of the true Buddhist state.
The model of Buddhist kingship provided in the Ninno¯ kyo¯ thus reflected
the long-held aspirations of the Japanese ruling elite and the Buddhist establishment, affirming the accepted model of how the relationship between the
secular establishment and the Buddhist clergy was envisioned. This model, in
turn, established the parameters for the reform proposals in the Ko¯zen gokokuron.
Ninno¯ kyo¯ Ideology and Zen Teaching in the Ko¯zen gokokuron